The Taste of Freedom

Lebanon came within grasp of its complete independence from the Ottoman Empire several times, but couldn’t quite pull through.  The Ottomans did whatever they thought was necessary to prevent Lebanon from gaining their independence. Under Druze leader Fakhr EdDine II, Lebanon’s attempt on gaining complete independence lasted seven years (16).  Lebanon’s struggle for independence from the Ottoman Empire wouldn’t have been as effective if it weren’t for the smart tactics of Fakhr EdDine II and the unity created by all the religions.

            Fakhr EdDine II wanted complete independence from the Ottoman Empire. He realized that he couldn’t overcome them on his own; therefore he made close ties with the Duke of Tuscany, Cosimo II (17). The Ottoman Empire figured out his scheme and exiled him. Fakhr EdDine II fled to Italy and was welcomed by Cosimo II. The Duke of Tuscany was also interested in weakening the power of the Ottoman Empire.  Fakhr EdDine planned his exile wisely. While he was asking for aid from the Duke of Tuscany, his enemies’ reigns would end and he would return to Lebanon and sort out the mess. After five years, the Harfouch family betrayed EdDine II, allying with Mustafa Pasha, Mirmiran of Damascus (18). Although outnumbered, Fakhr EdDine II was determined for retaliation on the Ottoman Empire. The Lebanese Army defeated Mustafa Pasha at the Battle of Anjar in 1623 (19). The Ottomans weren’t happy with how Fakhr EdDine was gaining authority and ordered Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha, the Muhafiz of Damascus to attack EdDine II. The Druze leader decided to stay and defend Lebanon, but it ended up in a significant defeat. He witnessed his son Emir Ali Beg die in combat and was soon captured and brought to Constantinople where he was executed (20).

            During 1841, disputes between Maronite Christians and the Druze exploded. Violence broke out between the two religions which included a massacre of the Christians by the Druze at Deir Al Qamar (21). Any survivors were slaughtered by the Ottomans. The Maronite Christians revolted against the feudal classes and it lasted all up until 1858. After two years, a sectarian war broke out in 1860. The Maronite Christians were aided by the French and the British, while the Druze were supported by the Ottomans. The Druze created a military campaign of burning and massacring the Maronite Christians (22).  The Congress of Europe interfered just before a near victory for the Druze, and halted all actions. The Maronite Christians were given a mountainous district that was isolated from the Bekaa and Beirut (23). Poverty began to rapidly grow and an estimated 4,000 died and 100,000 became homeless (24). Realizing this crisis, all the religions decided to unite together to form a better Lebanon politically, economically, and socially. Aside from the hate for one another, they were unselfish and agreed on forming one Lebanese community.

The Ottoman Empire ended after World War I and the League of Nations approved the scripts of the French Mandate for Lebanon and Syria (25). The French had the responsibility of building a foundation for Lebanon to become a self-relying country (26). The Maronite Christians were pro-French and liked the idea. They were the more favored group during the French rule. Most of Lebanon was formed by Christians and Muslims who were against the French rule and an independent Lebanon. They wanted a complete Arab state.

The constitution of 1926 stated that each religion should be represented in the office (27). The president would be Maronite, the prime minister Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of the chamber a Shi’ite Muslim. A Franco-Lebanese treaty was signed that gave independence and friendship between the two countries, but the French government didn’t approve (28). The fall of France occurred in 1940 and Lebanon was run under the Vichy authorities, but British and French troops still held positions in Lebanon (29). In 1943, the French troops held an election and the Nationalists were victorious. Their leader Bishara al-Khuri wanted to erase all French influence. The French were furious and arrested the government. They rebuilt the government and Lebanon gained its independence on November 22, 1943 (30). Even though Lebanon was independent, it wasn’t until the end of 1946 when British and French troops agreed on withdrawal. By this time, Lebanon had become a part of the United Nations and the Arab League (31).

Lebanon Through the Eyes of the People

Fakhr EdDine II and Bashir II came from two religiously diverse families.  Although both ruled Lebanon for a period of time, Fakhr EdDine II was more successful and favored by the people.  Bashir II was an ambitious and wise ruler, but didn’t care for his people (10).  This caused many revolts and uprisings towards Bashir II.  Bashir II resembled the ruler that Niccolo Machiavelli described in his book “The Prince”.  Machiavelli disputed whether a ruler should be feared more than loved.  He then came to a conclusion that a feared ruler is more successful and does more damage than a loved one, but must also maintain mutual respect with his people.   Bashir II was a feared ruler but didn’t maintain a good reputation with the people.  This led to the people revolting against him and created chaos throughout the country. He didn’t strike fear in his country’s eyes instantly when he became the leader.  The colonial experience of Lebanon cannot exclude the harsh conditions the people faced and the influential imprint the Ottoman Empire left.

            Under the rule of Bashir II, the people were treated unfairly and their rights were limited.  He forced people to join the army and farmers to work without receiving pay (11).  If anyone refused or disobeyed his orders, he would hang them without hesitation.  He hired spies to break into houses that raised any suspicion or were a threat to his rule (12). By doing so, he suppressed the freedom of the people.  The people weren’t an issue for him as long as his rule was successful.  Poverty reached the highest it has been during his reign due to his selfishness (13).  

            The Ottoman Empire indirectly influenced the economy in Lebanon to this day.  The Lebanese people felt oppressed and were uncomfortable under their rule.  They would leave Lebanon and emigrate to Egypt and countries in North and South America (14).  The people would then send remittance to their family members back in Lebanon and this helped boost the economy (15).  Another aspect that was influenced would be the food.  The Ottoman cuisine is still widely spread and used throughout Lebanon.   One food would be the Shawarma, which originated in Constantinople, known today as Istanbul. 

The Brutal Conquest

Lebanon has been conquered by countless empires and nations.  The country developed the name Lebanon by the white snow that covers the beautiful mountains (1).  During the rule under the Roman Empire, ancient ruins were built to honor their Gods.  These ruins still stand to this day and are a grand tourist site.  The Temple of Venus is the most intact and only the columns of the Temple of Jupiter are what remain.  Being one of the tallest columns in the world, the columns of the Temple of Jupiter are 343 feet long and 338 feet wide (2).  Being conquered by multiple nations and empires, Lebanon has altered its cultural and tradition many times.  The Ottoman Empire is amongst these empires that had a significant influence on Lebanon even to this day.  The brutal conquest of Lebanon by the Ottoman Empire was characterized by an imbalance of military technology and the role of an important ruler.

In the fifteenth century, the Ottoman Empire conquered an area that is known as Greater Syria, which consisted of modern day Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan (3).  Before this conquer, the Mamluks had control of the territories of Syria and Lebanon.  In the Ottoman-Mamluk War of 1516, the Mamluks fell to the Ottomans and gave up many provinces which included Syria and Lebanon (4).  The Mamluks were traditional in their techniques of war.  They used heavy cavalry, bows and arrows, and refused the use of firearms, while the Ottomans used a harquebus, a muzzle loaded firearm (5).  This was one of the key reasons why the Mamluks had lost to the Ottomans.   Their military didn’t match up with the superior Ottoman Empire military.  During the Battle of Marj Dabiq, the Ottomans killed the Mamluk ruler Kansuh Al-Ghuri and were triumphant through their strategic military techniques (6).  In addition to the defeat, The Mamluks gave up Syria and Lebanon to the Ottomans.  A Sultan of the Ottoman Empire by the name of Selim I was given the rule over Lebanon in 1516.

            Selim I, or often referred to as Yavuz meaning “the Steadfast”, ruled Lebanon through feudal families (7).  This system was based on fiefdoms.  Tribal chieftains were used to collect taxes for Salim I (8).  Two significant feudal families by the name of the Maans, a Druze family, and the Shihabs, a Sunni Muslim family ruled Lebanon for quite some time (9).  The Maan family ruled Lebanon until 1697.  Through their leader Fakhr EdDine II, Lebanon became more prosperous and nearly gained complete independence from the Ottomans.